Psychosocial Hazards

Psychosocial hazards covers many factors such as stress, fatigue, and bullying. Life has become so a fast paced, that psychosocial hazards can easily overwhelm a person effecting work, home life, and creating health issues that may have long-lasting effects. The three terms used, stress, fatigue, and bullying, are all classified differently, however, they are connected and can be the catalyst in a chain of psychosocial hazards. Thus turning into a long-term downward spiral which can have serious repercussions to a person's health and mental well-being.

What is Bullying?

Bullying is when a person uses a superior force, such as strength or intellect, to intimidate or belittle another. This can consist of belittling remarks regarding a person's age, gender, race, lifestyle, educational or economic background. IT can also include unwanted advances the subject feels difficult to refuse. Forcing a person to perform menial, pointless or impossible tasks designed to make the person feel servile or impotent is also another form of bullying. Statistics vary for bullying in schools and the workplace. Victims feel intimidated and believe the bullying will continue or escalate if they report the incident and/or the guilty party. A survey of schools in forty countries shows that Australia has a high amount of bullying. With this in mind, bullying is evident to the person and/or the colleges of the intended targeted and preventative measures can be taken to limit and/or eliminate this negative behaviour.One of the more recent and heavily contested forms of bullying, is the concept of cyber-bullying. The internet has provided an anonymous platform that not only allows bullies to extend their reach but it also allows people who would not normally bully to do so and feel empowered. The largest problem with cyber-bullying is in attempting to define what constitutes cyber-bullying. Social networking has become so prevalent in everyday life a private joke which began in a face to face situation may be continued online, however, a third party who is not aware of the origins of the conversation may well see the online content in the wrong context and believe it is bullying.

What is Stress?

Hans Seyle (1936), first described stress as 'the non-specific neuroendocrine response of the body.' More recently however, stress has been redefined as an emotional state caused by demanding or adverse factors. Stress can, in fact, can be healthy and positive depending of the levels. It can promote the fight or flight response in a dangerous situation and can be motivating to a person attempting to complete a task. However, large amounts of stress, or being exposed to stressful situations for extended periods of time can have negative effects on a person's health. Stress can be caused by long work hours and/or an excessive workload, deadlines or a restricted timetable. Stress can also be created through harassment and bullying. Stress causes physiological and psychical changes in the human body. Adrenaline is produced which increases heart rate, breathing and muscle tension. These changes once served to preserve life in a threatening situation however they do not aid in modern society where problems cannot be solved by the fight or flight reaction. If not managed, these factors can contribute to a myriad of health issues including increased blood pressure, heart-related issues and lessened immune system function. If left untreated, stress can be a contributing factor to a shortened lifespan.

What is fatigue?

The Safe Work Australia's 'Guide for managing the risk of fatigue at work', (2013) defines fatigue as, 'a state of mental and/or physical exhaustion which reduces a person's ability to perform work safely and effectively.’ This can be a serious issue within the workplace where a lowered state of awareness due to fatigue could have serious consequences. Over an extended period of time, fatigue can lead to other health-related issues such as high blood pressure, anxiety, and depression. Fatigue can be caused by various factors such as long work hours or rotational shift work. Repetitive or monotonous tasks or tasks which require a high degree of concentration for long periods. Non-work related factors such as a person's lifestyle or other commitments may also contribute to fatigue. Fatigue can have a much more serious impact within fields of work such as driving or operating heavy machinery, working with heights or other hazardous substances, in the medical field. Fatigue can effect anyone at any time and like stress can be a serious issue within the work place.

Dealing with Psychosocial Hazards

Dealing with psychosocial hazards follows a similar model used for any other hazards. First step is to identify the hazard followed by an evaluation of the severity of the hazard. After identifying and evaluating the hazard, safety control measures must be implemented to control/eliminate the hazard. Once these controls are implemented, they must be reviewed and adjusted on a regular basis. It is the duty of management to ensure the workplace is a safe place for all workers and any employee/personal suffering from any of these afflictions should seek help from a professional.

Measuring Psychosocial Hazards

A 2001 report for the Health and Safety Executive classified some of the measures used to identify psychosocial hazards. These measures fell into the three following categories. Generic, Occupation-specific, and Hazard specific. The most common ways to measure this type of hazard are self-reporting or observational methods. Employers use the information gathered through these methods to evaluate and control the situation.

Doing this has many benefits for the employers and management. Some of these benefits in a decrease sick leave, improvements in morale and the possibility of an increase of productivity.

Governments, including the Australian Government, are taking a dim view of this negative behaviour and have had some perpetrators criminally prosecuted. Although, inconsistencies in the reporting of such behaviour make this a difficult process. Due to this alone, it is a difficult task to show an exact statistical representation of psychosocial hazards. In say this however, some studies have claimed that as many as 17% of people have claimed to be the victims of bullying.

References

EUOSHA 2014, Managing stress and psychosocial risks at work: healthy workplaces campaign 2014-2015, video,  7 April, viewed 15 June 2016, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iBy4WaR14Bo

Safe Work Australia 2013, Guide for managing the risk of fatigue at work, viewed 15 June 2016,http://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/sites/SWA/about/Publications/Documents/825/Managing-the-risk-of-fatigue.pdf

Szabo S, Tache Y, et al., 2012, ‘The legacy of Hans Selye and the origins of stress research: a retrospective 75 years after his landmark brief “letter” to the editor of nature’, Stress, July, viewed 15 June 2016, http://www.selyeinstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/The-legacy-of-Hans-Selye44.pdf

The Institute for Employment Studies 2001, A critical review of psychosocial hazard measures, viewed 15 June 2016, http://www.hse.gov.uk/Research/crr_pdf/2001/crr01356.pdf

The Bullying Awareness Guidebook | AccreditedSchoolsOnline.org 2017, viewed 22 February 2017, http://www.accreditedschoolsonline.org/bullying-awareness-guidebook/

Cummins, J 2017, The Effect of Stress on Your Body - Executive Medicine, in , Executive Medicine, viewed 22 February 2017, http://www.executivemedicine.com.au/the-effect-of-stress-on-your-body/

Biological Hazard

Biological Hazards

Biological hazards are organic in nature. They are usually identified as viruses, toxins, pathogens and other bio-active sources that can be a threat to any living organisms. Exposure to biohazards can come from several sources, contact with a contaminated substance and/or surface, plant and animal life, and human and animal remains and/or secretions. These organisms can enter the body via inhalation, ingestion, or a break in the skin. This category of hazard is as varied as their effects and as such are categorised by the level of virulence. There are four biohazard levels with level one being the least dangerous and generally none life threatening and level four fatal with no form of current treatment available.

Working with Biohazards

Exposure to biological hazards is widely common and the risk of contamination may not be easily established. According to the National Hazard exposure Worker Surveillance, de Crespigny (2011), approximately 1300 workers in Australia each year seek compensation due to biohazards. The report then goes on to state that this number may be an underestimation of the actual figures.

Contact with biohazards is extremely common in almost every employment situation.  Farmers and fishery workers are exposed not only to animal waste and excrement, but also deceased and decaying animals. Utility workers, medical staff and construction workers are at risk of exposure. It is not just the work place that offers people the risk of exposure to biohazards. Diseases such as Legionella bacteria which caused legionnaires disease can breed in air conditioning units meaning shoppers at a local centre can be at risk. Overall the possibility of exposure to a biohazards could be considered one of the highest risks currently known to man.

Evaluating Biohazards

Biohazards are categorised into four levels of severity. The first of which and also the least threatening is level one. This includes diseases such as varicella (chicken pox). Normal precautions are minimal and include mechanical pipetting, cleaning and decontamination of spills as well as sterilising equipment, personal protective equipment such as gowns, gloves and masks are also used. Level 2 covers diseases such as the equine encephalitis viruses and HIV. Precautions taken while working in this environment include disposal of sharps in appropriately labelled containers, direct handling of broken glassware is not allowed, and workers must have the correct immunisation before entering the containment area. Level 3 includes West Nile virus and Yellow fever. These diseases can be fatal if not treated so precautions are even more stringent including solid-front gowns, scrub suits or coveralls. Respirators must also be worn at all time while in proximity of the infected subject. Level 4 is the most dangerous, diseases such as the ebola virus and the lassa virus. These diseases can be easily transmitted, are often fatal and there are no treatments available. Usually, these laboratories are either in a separate building or in a totally isolated area. Workers in these laboratories must wear an enclosed environmental suit with an external air supply. They must also be decontaminated upon exiting the laboratories. These procedures are outlined in the World Health Organisation (WHO) Laboratory biosafety manual (2004) 

Safety Measures

There are many different procedures outlined by the WHO concerning biohazards but these are by no means applicable to the average worker or the general public. Basic hygiene, disposing of waste properly and avoiding known contaminated areas is sufficient to avoid contact with most biohazards. Even the wearing of gloves and/or a mask will aid in avoiding most common diseases. If someone does however fall ill due to a biohazards, they should seek medical aid immediately.

References

Safe Work Australia 2011, National hazard exposure worker surveillance: exposure to biological hazards and the provision of controls against biological hazards in Australian workplaces, viewed 11 June 2016, http://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/sites/SWA/about/Publications/Documents/571/NHEWS_BiologicalMaterials.pdf

World Health Organisation 2004, Laboratory biosafety manual 2004, viewed 14 June 2016, http://www.who.int/csr/resources/publications/biosafety/en/Biosafety7.pdf

Electrical Hazard

Electricity

Electricity is the movement of negatively charged particles called electrons along a closed path called a circuit. Three commonly used terms when referring to electricity are Voltage, Resistance, and Current. Voltage is the force that pushes electricity along a current and is measured in volts. Resistance is anything that impedes the flow and is measured in ohms, and current is the flow of electrons along the path which is measured in amperes or Amps.

Conductivity refers to ease of which a current can flow through an object. Rubber has next to no conductivity which is the opposite of water, which has very high conductivity. The human body majoritively composed of water which in turn makes it highly conductive. Electrical energy has the potential to cause serious harm and can be potentially fatal due to the process of electrocution. Electricity can also lead to other hazards, an example is it being the ignition source for a fire or explosion.

How a circuit works

Measuring Electricity

Electricity is measured in Watts and was named after its discoverer, inventor John Watts. A watt is defined as one ampere under the pressure of one volt. All simple devices around the home that comprise of a simple circuit can use hundreds of watts during use. The commercial and industrial use of electricity is measured in kilowatts/hour, or Kw/h.

Electrocution

Electrocution, which can be fatal to all organic life forms, is defined by the website, Explore Forensics (2016), as the "sudden and involuntary introduction of large, or persistent, amounts of electricity into the human body."

Electrical hazards are the cause of approximately twenty deaths each year in Australia and the Journal of injury prevention (2002, P.308) clearly states that, it is the fifth leading cause of occupational injury death in the United States.

All industries and occupations expose workers to some degree of electricity, most of which is safe unless there is a fault within the circuit/system. The industries with the most fatalities due to electrical hazards are as follows; Construction, Transport, Manufacturing, and Communications.

Electrical Safety

There are several ways to lessen the chance of exposing workers to electrical hazards. The best way is to have all electrical equipment checked and test regularly and to either repair or replace any faults in the system. Personal Protective Equipment may be used to lessen the chance of exposure. These would be in the form of clothing or footwear that have a low conductivity. Ensuring proper distances are observed via the use of barricades is also a useful way to limit exposure. If the hazard is due to a fault or breakdown in the system then elimination can be achieved by removing the supply of electrical energy. This removes any further chance of an electrical hazard. If a workers duties put him or her in close proximity to electricity, such as a line worker, the Australian safety regulation (2013, s24) dictate a worker must be appropriately trained to do the work involved. They must also be assessed on their competence and acquire written permission before commencing work.

References

Claridge, J. (2016), Explore forensics: electrocution, viewed 7 June 2016, http://www.exploreforensics.co.uk/electrocution.html

Electrical Safety Act 2002 (QLD), Electrical safety regulation, s.24, viewed 10 June 2016, https://www.legislation.qld.gov.au/LEGISLTN/CURRENT/E/ElectricalSA02.pdf

ScienceOnline (poster) 2006, Introduction to electricity, video, viewed 7 June 2016, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EJeAuQ7pkpc

Taylor, A, McGwin, G & Valent, F 2002 ‘Fatal occupational electrocutions in the United States’, Journal of Injury Prevention, vol.8, p.308, viewed 7 June 2016, http://injuryprevention.bmj.com/content/8/4/306.full.html

How does an electric toaster work? 2017, viewed 22 February 2017, http://www.explainthatstuff.com/electrictoasters.html

Team, B 2017, What are Watt, Kilowatt and a unit of electricity, in , Bijli Bachao, viewed 22 February 2017, https://www.bijlibachao.com/electricity-bill/what-are-watt-kilowatt-and-a-unit-of-electricity.html

Electrocution Injuries Medical Exhibit Medivisuals 2017, viewed 22 February 2017, http://medivisuals1.com/electrocution-injuries-40204101x.aspx

Electrical Safety Archives - Electrical Contractor 2017, viewed 22 February 2017, http://www.goodielelectric.com/electrical-safety/

Chemical Energy

Chemical Energy

 Chemical energy is energy stored within chemical compounds which can be released through a chemical reaction and to produce by-products. The most common of which is usually heat. This is more commonly known as an exothermic reaction. Once that energy has been released, the original state is transformed into a new state. For example, when wood burns, it releases heat and is transformed into smoke and ash.

Fire and Explosions

Fire is the rapid oxidation of a substance. The process in which this reaction occurs produces a large amount of heat. The heat generated is potentially dangerous to a person depending on their proximity to the energy source. The human body can tolerate up to forty-three degrees for a sustained period, however, if the temperature exceeds this threshold, burns can occur. Burns can be very damaging to the human body depending on their severity. First degree burns cause minor surface damage whereas fourth degree burns can cause muscle or organ damage, possibility resulting in death. If the damage caused by the energy source is sufficient, then severe scarring, loss of movement, and quality of life are very likely possibilities. Smoke inhalation is another very serious risk when talking about fire as an energy source. Smoke is a by-product of the exothermal reaction and if inhaled for a long enough period of time, may result in asphyxiation and possibly death. Even a short periods of exposure can cause irreversible damage to the lungs, causing reduced lung capacity. Should someone be inflicted with burns, immediately place the affected area under cool running water for a period of approximately twenty minutes. If the burn appears to break the skin or cover a large area, seek medical attention immediately.

Explosions are very similar to fire, in that they are caused by the same process, the rapid oxidation of a substance. However, the key difference between fire and an explosion is the manner in which the oxidation occurs. Fire is comparatively slower when observed side by side with an explosion. The reaction of an explosive energy transformation is much faster and violent. Explosions come in two main forms. The first is in the form of a fireball. Extreme heat but no concussive wave. A prime example is to throw a small bottle of fuel on an open fire. Once heated enough, the fuel ignites and expands in a fireball. The second is a much more devastating occurrence. Substances such as high-grade explosives, C-4 as an example, create a much more violent reaction which subsequently results in a supersonic shockwave. This shockwave is extremely dangerous and capable of causing mass amounts of damage to anything within the blast radius. Both of these explosive energy sources are more than capable of causing high degree burns, however, the later has the added effect of the shockwave. This shockwave is capable of causing very serious internal damage on any persons unfortunate enough to be caught within the blast radius. Due to the nature of fire and explosions, it can be extremely difficult to counter act against the reaction and in most cases it is better to evacuate the area and seek cover to avoid any possible damage. The best solution is to avoid the potential of either of these scenarios from occurring by practising proper handling procedures when interacting with any substance that could succumb to this state of energy transformation.

The storing, use and transportation of these substances are strictly controlled and regulated to decrease risks of an energy transformation.  The Queensland government states that, “any vehicle carrying either 500 litres, or 500 kilograms of a dangerous substance must display a placard containing the appropriate information regarding the substance and the driver must carry a dangerous goods licence.”(Safe Work Australia 2016)

Chemical Hazard

A hazardous chemical is a substance that can cause harm. Chemicals are part of our everyday life and can be found in almost all households. Substances such as bleach and toilet cleaner are prime examples. If proper care is not taken while using and storing said chemicals then there is a very possible chance of a fatality occurring. The effects on the human body varies from chemical to chemical. Some can be toxic if inhaled or ingested, others can produce burns if direct contact is made with the skin. Hazardous chemicals can also be found in most workplaces. These industrial chemicals are usually more concentrated than the household versions. Due to this fact alone, a higher level of care should be taken when storing or handling them. In 2012, Australia began to use the GHS, or Globally Harmonised System, to classify dangerous chemicals. This is an internationally recognised system and will become mandatory in Australia in 2017.

Chemical Burns

Chemical burns occurs when a caustic substance, such as an acid, comes into direct contact with organic tissue, such as skin. The severity of chemical burns are near identical to that of burns caused by extreme heat, such as the earlier energy source of fire. Though it is worth noting that chemicals can be ingested, as such this can cause even greater internal damage. Ingesting hazardous chemicals will likely cause extreme pain and possibility irreversible damage and in the worse cases, death. Caution and care should be taken handling and/or storing chemicals. Personal protective equipment should be readily available and used. Also, any spills should be cleaned and reported immediately. If a chemical comes into contact with the skin wash the area immediately. Also, remove and dispose of any contaminated clothing, if the burns cover a reasonable area seek medical attention. If chemicals come in contact with the eyes, wash thoroughly for a minimum of twenty minutes and if any hazardous chemicals are ingested, seek immediate medical attention.

References

Safe Work Australia, Hazardous chemicals including globally harmonised system of classification and labelling of chemicals, viewed 14 June 2016, http://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/sites/swa/whs-information/hazardous-chemicals/pages/hazardous-chemicals-other-substances

Queensland Government Business and industry Portal, 2015, Placard requirements, viewed 14 June 2016, https://www.business.qld.gov.au/industry/transport/transporting-dangerous-goods/placard-requirements

RespectTheFlame 2012, What is fire?, video, 22 March, viewed 14 June 2016, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DIslIeE2irE

A Guide to Chemical Hazard Symbols 2017, viewed 21 February 2017, http://www.compoundchem.com/2015/05/19/hazard-symbols/

Energy - Chemical energy 2017, viewed 21 February 2017, http://www1.curriculum.edu.au/sciencepd/energy/chem.htm

Radiation Hazard

Radiation

Radiation would be best described as energy or particles that travel through a medium. There are a multitude of different forms radiation including light, heat, and microwave. Radiation is also found naturally. This happens when a naturally formed element has an unstable nucleus. The nucleus decays, shedding the excess particles until stability is reached. Hazardous radiation, or ionising radiation, consists of alpha, beta, gamma, and x-rays. These are by far the most dangerous forms of radiation as they have the ability to dislodge electrons from an atom. For biological beings such as humans, this can be fatal. Radiation in a mild form can cause severe burns as is evidenced by the process of sunburn. Sunburn is caused by the solar radiation emitted by the sun. Despite the dangers, radiation can be used in controlled environments to make life better for human beings. Radiation is commonly used in the field of medicine for different purposes ranging from medical imaging to the treatment of some diseases.

Radiation as on Occupational Hazard

While most people spend their lives blissfully unaware of the risks of radiation, however, there are those that put themselves at a higher risk due to their occupations. There are many jobs that involve working with or around radiation sources, from medical imaging technicians, nuclear power plant worker and operators, nuclear scientists, and even hazardous materials transport. Although every precaution is taken to protect these workers, risks to themselves and those around them still exist. Studies show that despite preventative measures, nuclear medicine workers are at a higher risk of cancer than others, Changizi V. (2015). This is even after one takes into consideration that they are working below the exposure levels dictated by international standards for workers involved. As well as occupational risks, the potential for a devastating incident also exists. There have been accidents involving nuclear power plants and during the transportation of nuclear waste. These threaten not only the workers but also the surrounding population and environment.

Radiation Safety

Radiation exists in everyday life.  Radiation emitted by the sun bombards the planet. Naturally occurring radiation emits from the earths surface in the form of a radioactive gas known as Radon. Even terrestrial radiation is emitted via naturally occurring radioactive elements.

While the overall effect of radiation on the global population is limited, in some areas where the levels are higher, a possible threat does exist. A recent study performed in Switzerland and published in Environmental Health Perspectives (2015 p.625), stated The nationwide census-based cohort study found evidence of an increased risk of cancer among children exposed to external doses of background ionising radiation. This said however, without conclusive evidence from across the global, the risk is generally considered negligible. It is only when radiation level reach higher levels that a hazard manifests.

Out of the three common types of ionising radiation, gamma radiation is by far, the most dangerous. While alpha particles can be contained something as simple as a piece of paper and beta particles by Perspex, gamma particles require lead or concrete to block it. The best method of prevention for exposure to hazardous radiation is to avoid it. Follow proper protocols, heed any and all warnings and do not enter areas of concentrated doses unless it is completely necessary.

The most common form of protection in modern medical practise is lead shielding. This lowers exposure and keeps the radiation at acceptable levels. The National Standard for limiting occupational exposure to ionising radiation (1995) limits the effective exposure levels to no more than 20mSv per year averaged over a period of five consecutive years or a single year limit of 50mSv. The dose limit for the general public is 1mSv a year.

Measuring Radiation

Measuring radiation is conducted in two ways. These are radiation activity and radiation exposure. The unit for measuring radiation activity is called a Becquerel, or Bq. This is measurement is performed by counting how many particles are emitted per second from a radiation source. Radiation exposure is expressed in three ways, Absorbed Dose, which is the amount of energy placed in a kilogram of a substance from a source. This is measured by units of Gray (Gy). Equivalent Dose compares the absorbed dose to the damage inflicted to the host by the radiation. This is measured in unites referred to as Sievert (Sv).The Effective Dose is varied as it depends on the type of tissue exposed to the radiation and is also measured in Sieverts.

Two of the most common types of equipment used for measuring radiation are the Gieger counter and the Dosimeter. The Gieger cunter is a handheld device which provides real-time feedback on localized radiation and is a common device for people working in environments potentially effected by radiation. The Dosimeter is a smaller device that can be attached to a shirt or worn on a finger. The dosimeter detects radiation it is exposed to.

References

ANSTOVideos 2015, Safely managing Australia’s radioactive waste, video, 12 November, viewed 10 June 2016, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X-xK95vygkM

 Changizi V, Alizadeh MH, 2015, ‘A study of professional radiation hazards in CT scan and nuclear medicine workers using GTG-banding and solid stain’, Medical Journal of the Islamic Republic of Iran, vol.29:200.

Cohort study’, Environ Health Perspectives, June, p.625, viewed 10 June 2016, http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1408548

Radiation & Energy Transfer - My NASA data. My NASA Data 16 Feb. 2017. https://mynasadata.larc.nasa.gov/radiation-energy-transfer/

Radiation | Nuclear Radiation | Ionizing Radiation | Health Effects - World Nuclear Association. World-nuclear.org Web. 21 Feb. 2017. http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/radiation-and-health/nuclear-radiation-and-health-effects.aspx

Radiation. En.wikipedia.org 21 Feb. 2017. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiation

Spycher B, Lupatsch J, et al. 2015, ‘Background ionizing radiation and the risk of childhood cancer: a census-based nationwide